Agricultural Practices

Agricultural practices are dependent upon the intensity and technology of the methods used; at one end of the spectrum lies the subsistence farmer who farms a small area with limited inputs and produces only enough food to meet the needs of their family, whilst at the other lies intensive agriculture, which involves large fields and/or numbers of animals, high resource inputs (pesticides, fertilizers), and a high level of mechanization. These operations achieve economies of scale and require large amounts of capital in the form of land and machinery.

Recent Changes in Agricultural Practice

The 20th century saw huge changes in agricultural practice, particularly in mechanisation and in agricultural chemistry. Mechanisation has increased farm efficiency and productivity in most regions of the world, due especially to the tractor and various "gins" (short for "engine") such as the cotton gin, semi-automatic balers and threshers and, above all, the combine harvester. Agricultural chemistry includes the application of chemical insecticides, fertilizers and fungicides, along with the nutritional needs of farm animals and analysis of soil makeup.

Other recent changes in agriculture include plant breeding, hydroponics, gene manipulation, hybridisation, better management of soil nutrients, and improved weed control. Genetic engineering has yielded crops which have capabilities beyond those of naturally occurring plants, such as higher yields and disease resistance. Modified seeds germinate faster, and thus can be grown on an accelerated schedule. Genetic engineers may someday develop transgenic plants which would allow for irrigation, drainage, conservation, sanitary engineering, and maintaining or increasing yields while requiring fewer fossil fuel derived inputs than conventional crops. However, genetic engineering of plants has proven controversial, particularly in the case of herbicide-resistant plants.

In the 2000s, some aspects of intensive industrial agriculture have been the subject of increasing debate. The widening sphere of influence held by large seed and chemical companies, meat packers and food processors has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public. Another issue is the type of feed given to some animals that can cause bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle. There has also been concern over the effect of intensive agriculture on the environment. The patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using genetic engineering has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users. This has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies, allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unheard of. The Indian activist and scientist Vandana Shiva argues that these companies are guilty of biopiracy.

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)

The term Good Agricultural Practices can refer to any collection of specific methods that produce results that are in harmony with the values of the proponents of those practices. The practices are a collection of principles to apply for on-farm production and post-production processes, resulting in healthy and safe food and non-food agricultural products, whilst taking into account environmental, social and economical sustainability.

The concept of GAPs has changed in recent years because of a rapidly changing agriculture, globalisation of world trade, food scares (mad cow disease), nitrate pollution of water, appearance of pesticide resistance, soil erosion and so on. GAPs applications are being developed by governments, NGOs and private sector to meet farmers and transformers needs and specific requirements.

GAPs may be applied to a wide range of farming systems and at different scales. They are applied through sustainable agricultural methods, such as integrated fertilizer management, integrated pest management, and conservation agriculture. They rely on four principles:

1. Sustain and enhance natural resources.
2. Economically and efficiently produce sufficient (food security), safe (food safety) and nutritious food (food quality).
3. Meet cultural and social demands of society.
4. Maintain viable farming enterprises and contribute to sustainable livelihoods.

GAPs provide the opportunity to assess and decide on which farming practices to follow at each step in the production process. For each agricultural production system, they aim at allowing a comprehensive management strategy, providing for the capability for tactical adjustments in response to changes. The implementation of such a management strategy requires knowing, understanding, planning, measuring, monitoring, and record-keeping at each step of the production process.

GAPs Related to Animal Production, Health and Welfare

• Avoid negative impacts on landscape, environment and life: contamination of land for grazing, food, water and air.
• Respect of animal well-being (freedom from hunger and thirst; freedom from discomfort; freedom from pain, injury or disease; freedom to express normal behaviour; and freedom from fear and distress).
• Avoid non-therapeutic mutilations, surgical or invasive procedures, such as tail docking and de-beaking.
• Prevent chemical and medical residues from entering the food chain.
• Check stocks and flows, maintain structure of systems.
• Minimise transport of live animals (by foot, rail or road) (reducing the risk of epidemics, e.g., foot and mouth disease).
• Avoid feeding animals with animal wastes or animal matter (reducing the risk of alien viral or transgenic genes, or prions such as mad cow disease).
• Minimise non-therapeutic use of antibiotics or hormones.
• Prefer safety measures standards in manipulation of equipment.
• Prevent waste run-off (e.g. nitrate contamination of water tables from pigs), nutrient loss and greenhouse gas emissions (methane from cows).
• Apply traceability processes on the whole production chain (breeding, feed, medical treatment) for consumer security and feedback possibility in case of a food crisis (e.g., dioxin).

Good Agricultural Practices Related to Soil

• Maintaining or restoring soil organic content, by manure application, use of grazing, crop rotation.
• Reducing erosion by wind and water through hedging and ditching.
• Reduce soil compaction issues (by avoiding using heavy mechanical devices).
• Application of fertilizers at appropriate moments and in adequate doses (i.e., when the plant needs the fertilizer), to avoid run-off (see nitrogen balance method).
• Insitu greening manuring by growing pulse crops like cowpea, horse gram, sunhemp etc.
• Maintain soil structure, by limiting heavy tillage practices.

Good Agricultural Practices Related to Water

• Prevent soil salinisation by limiting water input to needs, and recycling water whenever possible.
• Maintain permanent soil covering, in particular in winter to avoid nitrogen run-off.
• Avoid crops with high water requirements in a low availability region.
• Practice schedule irrigation, with monitoring of plant needs, and soil water reserve status to avoid water loss by drainage.
• Avoid drainage and fertilizer run-off.
• Manage carefully water table, by limiting heavy output of water.
• Provide good water points for livestock.
• Restore or maintain wetlands.
• Insitu water harvesting by digging catch pits, crescent bunds across slope.